[Lee Sang-hoon's Korean History] The Hidden Hero of the Victory at Bongodong and Cheongsanri Battles: 'Gyeongsin-guk'

Secret Intelligence Organization of the Korean Military Government

This year marks the 100th anniversary of the victories at the Battles of Bongodong and Cheongsanri. In June 1920, the independence army defeated the Japanese regular army at Bongodong. Shocked, the Japanese army sought to eliminate the independence army’s bases altogether. From October, the Japanese army mobilized large-scale forces to 'dispatch troops' to Gando (間島). This marked the beginning of the Battle of Cheongsanri. The Japanese army’s operations continued for about eight months until May of the following year.

The Japanese army’s Gando expedition destroyed the independence army’s bases and Korean villages. Thousands of Koreans were massacred during this time. This is known as the Gando Incident or Gyeongsin Incident. Subsequently, the Japanese Korean Military Command prepared a report titled 'Gando Expedition History (間島出兵史)'.

'Gando Expedition History' details the military and Foreign Ministry situations before and after the expedition, negotiations with China, actual combat situations after the expedition, and subsequent performance analysis. How did the independence army respond to the Japanese army’s Gando expedition?

Statue of General Hong Beom-do, who led the victory in the Battle of Bongodong
Photo by Ministry of National Defense
[Image source=Yonhap News]

Chapter 6, 'Opinions and Reference Matters for the Future,' in 'Gando Expedition History' contains passages that allow us to estimate the independence army’s intelligence gathering and transmission speed at the time. The Japanese army’s intelligence gathering and communication were in extremely difficult positions, whereas the independence army was in a very advantageous position. In particular, the independence army’s chejeonsik (遞傳式) communication was quite advanced. Chejeonsik refers to a method of rapid transmission by passing messages sequentially through multiple locations.

The Japanese army judged that the independence army was transmitting even the slightest signs at an astonishing speed through chejeonsik, so caution was necessary. In fact, even the Japanese army’s ordering of late-night snacks or making of lunchboxes was meticulously transmitted to the independence army.

"There was an occasion when our actions were perceived due to ordering simple late-night snacks in villages in Hoeryeong or making lunchboxes at the homes of police officers on duty, causing a rare opportunity to be lost." "According to documents seized during the Kano (加納) punitive expedition near Dongbulsa (銅佛寺), a battle report near Eorang Village in the Higashi (東) area on October 22 reached all members of the National Assembly (國民會) near Dongbulsa, located over ten ri away, on the following day, October 23."

The Japanese army’s plans and intentions were to be kept secret from everyone except the officers directly involved in the planning. The Japanese army also believed that information spread quickly in all directions through Korean clerks, employees, police assistants, military police assistants, and telephone operators. They judged that Chinese and Koreans encountered during operations should be treated cautiously, and if they needed to pass quickly, both Chinese and Koreans should be detained.

Thus, the independence army’s intelligence gathering ability and transmission speed at the time were beyond expectations. How was this possible?

In March 1911, the Junggwangdan (重光團) was organized centered on Seo Il, and in April 1919, it was expanded and reorganized into the Daehan Jeonguidan (大韓正義團). In August 1919, the Daehan Gunjeonghoe (大韓軍政會), an armed independence army organization, was established under the Daehan Jeonguidan. Then, in October, the Daehan Jeonguidan, responsible for civil administration, and the Daehan Gunjeonghoe, responsible for military administration, merged to form the Daehan Gunjeongseo (大韓軍政府).

At this time, Seo Il, Hyeon Cheonmuk, Kim Jwa-jin, Jo Seonghwan, Lee Jangnyeong, and Lee Beom-seok played leading roles. Seo Il was the president of the Daehan Gunjeongseo, Hyeon Cheonmuk was the vice president, and Kim Jwa-jin was the commander of the headquarters.

Battle of Bongodong Report [Photo by Independence Hall of Korea] [Image Source=Yonhap News]

Led by Kim Jwa-jin and Lee Beom-seok, Daehan Gunjeongseo undertook civil inspection, secret investigations, and communication transmission duties
A quasi-military organization subject to military criminal law... 3,000 members actively fought for independence
Even Japanese army’s lunchbox making was detected... Japan surprised by outstanding intelligence gathering and transmission capabilities

The Daehan Gunjeongseo immediately contacted the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in Shanghai, China. They requested official recognition as an independence army organization under the Provisional Government. The Provisional Government approved on the condition that the name Daehan Gunjeongseo be changed to Daehan Gunjeongseo (大韓軍政署). In December 1919, the Daehan Gunjeongseo officially launched under the Provisional Government through 'State Council Order No. 205.'

Under the Daehan Gunjeongseo, various departments were established, including the President’s Office, Headquarters, Secretariat, Taxation Department, Personnel Bureau, Accounting Bureau, Military Law Bureau, Recruitment Bureau, Conscription Bureau, Machinery Bureau, and the Gyeongsin Bureau (警信局). Usually, the order of departments reflects their importance or urgency. The President’s Office overseeing the organization and the Headquarters handling military affairs were the most important. Next mentioned were the Secretariat handling administration and the Taxation Department handling finances. Among the various bureaus listed afterward, the Gyeongsin Bureau was positioned last.

The main duties of the Gyeongsin Bureau were inspection (警査) and communication (通信). Inspection duties included civil sentiment inspection, reconnaissance of various organizations’ activities and enemy situations (賊情), investigation of military secrets, rooting out internal subversives, and protection of executives. Communication duties included spreading news, reporting and transmitting communications, distributing official orders and proclamations, and transporting parcels.

The Gyeongsin Bureau was a secret intelligence organization that collected information extensively from Manchuria, Joseon, and the Maritime Province and quickly reported to higher authorities. Under the Gyeongsin Bureau, Gyeongsin Branch Offices were established. According to Article 3 of the 'Gyeongsin Branch Office Regulations' of the Daehan Gunjeongseo, branch offices were named sequentially as the 1st Branch Office, 2nd Branch Office, and so on.

In the 'Jinjung Ilji (陣中日誌)' written by Lee Jeong, a figure named Park Soon, the head of the 34th Gyeongsin Branch Office, is mentioned. This indicates that at least 34 Gyeongsin Branch Offices were established. Article 6 states that each branch office consists of one director, several members, and one secretary, totaling about five people. Based on an average of five people per branch office, 34 branch offices would have about 170 members.

Under the Gyeongsin Branch Offices, Gyeongsin Divisions were established. Article 8 states that divisions are also named sequentially as the 1st Division, 2nd Division, and so forth. In the 'Jinjung Ilji,' a figure named Lee Gyeongsang, head of the 8th Division of the 1st Gyeongsin Branch Office, is mentioned. This suggests that about eight divisions were established under each branch office.

Although there may be variations depending on regional circumstances, let’s estimate the number of division members based on eight divisions. Article 9 states that each division consists of one head, five communication agents, three inspectors, and one secretary, totaling ten members. Therefore, if 34 branch offices each had eight divisions, there would be 272 divisions in total. With ten members per division, that amounts to 2,720 members. Adding the 170 branch office members results in a total of 2,890 members. Nearly 3,000 people belonged to the Gyeongsin Bureau.

Victory article of the Battle of Bongodong published in the Independence Newspaper on June 22, 1920 [Photo by Ministry of Patriots and Veterans Affairs] [Image source=Yonhap News]

The Gyeongsin Bureau and its branch offices were not limited to Manchuria. In the winter of 1922, records remain of Japanese police and prosecutors interrogating Koreans at the Seoul District Court. Kang Cheol-gu, from Buyeo, Chungnam, was a figure who, after serving as a police assistant, worked at the Temporary Land Survey Bureau and then joined the independence movement. He migrated to Gando in September 1916. There, he worked as a teacher at Cheonyeong School and as Seo Il’s secretary at the Daehan Gunjeongseo, playing a major role in raising military funds. Later, he was captured and interrogated by the Japanese. At that time, Kang Cheol-gu testified that "the head of the Gyeongsin Bureau appointed one branch office head in each Korean county to collect military funds."

On July 3, 1920, the Daehan Gunjeongseo headquarters printed 40 copies each of the Military Criminal Law and Military Punishment Ordinance and sent them to the Gyeongsin Bureau. This means the Gyeongsin Bureau was a quasi-military organization subject to military criminal law. In other words, members of the Gyeongsin Bureau operated with a status equivalent to soldiers.

What is noteworthy here is that 40 copies each of the Military Criminal Law and Military Punishment Ordinance were printed. This suggests the possibility that there were 40 Gyeongsin Branch Offices, not 34. If there were 40 branch offices, the number of branch office members would be 200, and division members would be 3,200. This indicates that the Gyeongsin Bureau was a massive organization with about 3,400 members.

It is not clear whether the Gyeongsin Bureau’s subordinate organizations actually had 30 to 40 branch offices and about eight divisions each, or whether their scale reached 3,000 members. However, it is easy to imagine how many people actively cooperated with and volunteered for the Daehan Gunjeongseo. These people became the eyes and ears of the independence army and led the victories at the Battles of Bongodong and Cheongsanri.

Lee Sang-hoon, Professor, Department of Military History, Korea Military Academy

This content was produced with the assistance of AI translation services.