[In Depth] Why Was Oppenheimer Abandoned? (Part 2)

"Charming and Intelligent but... Quite a Pitiful Figure"
Proposed Dropping Bombs on Uninhabited Islands to Warn Japan
Truman Pushed Hydrogen Bomb Despite Scientists' Objections
Einstein's Different Views on Quantum Physics

'If you look closely,' it conveys useful information in a somewhat disorganized manner. This is a tip for enjoying movies more interestingly.

*Following <The Background of Oppenheimer's Appointment as the Head of the Nuclear Weapons Project (Part 1)>

*Physicist Hans Bethe spoke about Oppenheimer's efficient leadership as follows: "Even without Oppenheimer, Los Alamos would have achieved the necessary results. However, it would have been much more stressful, done without passion, and taken more time. The researchers had an unforgettable experience for life. I have had great achievements in other research. (...) But never before, as in Los Alamos, had we belonged to each other and worked with one heart. We always remember that time as a great period in our lives. Most of the credit for what was accomplished at Los Alamos was due to Oppenheimer. He was the leader. We were always aware of that fact, and he always had a clear grasp of even the smallest matters at the laboratory. Yet, he was not authoritarian and did not force anyone to do anything coercively. Like a kind-hearted host serving guests, he provided us with everything we needed. Anyone could see that he performed his duties well, and thanks to him, we did our best work."

*On May 1, 1945, Secretary of War Henry Stimson convened a meeting to inform Oppenheimer about the direction of atomic energy policy. At the first meeting held a week later, a scientific advisory panel was formed to advise on technical issues. Participants included Oppenheimer, Arthur Compton, Enrico Fermi, and Ernest Lawrence. The advisory panel agreed that if Japan did not surrender unconditionally, a bomb would be dropped on the Japanese mainland in November 1945. After long discussions, they concluded that dropping a bomb on an uninhabited island to demonstrate its power was meaningless, and for ending the war, it had to be dropped directly on a densely populated area. Oppenheimer later regretted this decision. In a 1962 writing, he stated: "The bomb was dropped on Japan. It was already anticipated. (...) It seemed natural. There were many questions, but few records remain of the numerous discussions surrounding it. (...) We all knew that political efforts alone could not bring an end to the war in the Far East. (...) I think so. (...) The battle plans to invade the Japanese mainland at that time would have resulted in far more terrible consequences than dropping the bomb in every respect. It was expected that 500,000 to 1,000,000 Allied soldiers would die, and Japanese casualties would be twice that number. Nevertheless, I thought it would be better to drop the bomb on an uninhabited island as a warning so that fewer people would die in battle or war."

*Everyone who knew Oppenheimer says he lived the rest of his life fully aware of "his responsibility for contributing to the development and use of the atomic bomb."

*After the war, President Harry Truman and Secretary of State James Byrnes appointed the elderly Bernard Baruch, aged 65, as the U.S. delegate to the International Atomic Energy Commission (IAEC). Oppenheimer was quite displeased by Baruch's lack of willingness to understand the technical importance mentioned in the Acheson-Lilienthal Report (which focused on controlling all dangerous elements of atomic energy development internationally). Before meeting Baruch?that is, when working with people like Conant, Stimson, Acheson, McCloy, and Lilienthal?he believed that issues surrounding nuclear weapons and atomic energy were handled by trustworthy people. As feared, Baruch revised the Acheson-Lilienthal Report and obtained Truman's approval. Although it appeared not much different from the original, its spirit was completely different. The revision emphasized punishing acts that violated international agreements regardless of veto power. The accepted parts of the original included that once the international organization was established, a global survey of uranium resources would be conducted, and all countries, including the U.S., would have to dismantle all atomic bombs produced so far. Oppenheimer pointed out that the Soviet Union would see Baruch's proposal as a U.S. ploy to monopolize atomic technology, and no country would delegate its authority to an international organization. Oppenheimer was right. The Soviet Union attending the IAEC meeting rejected Baruch's proposal.

*To block Baruch's revision of the Acheson-Lilienthal Report, Oppenheimer contributed an article to the New York Times Magazine Sunday edition on June 9, 1946. "The core of our proposal is to establish a reliable international nuclear research organization that seeks peaceful uses of nuclear energy while coordinating and controlling to prevent an arms race among nations due to atomic bomb development." He emphasized two facts: one, "the development of atomic energy for peace and for war cannot be thought of separately," and the other, "there is no appropriate international organization capable of controlling nuclear weapons internationally."

*Oppenheimer did not agree with Albert Einstein's claim that a world government should be established under international law equally applied to all humanity. However, during September 1945, through correspondence with Einstein about Emery Reves' 'An Anatomy of Peace,' he underwent a change in thinking.

*On July 23, 1946, Lilienthal had dinner with Oppenheimer and talked until 1:30 a.m. The next day, he wrote in his diary: "Oppenheimer is deeply disappointed with what is happening in New York. He feels the U.S. delegation does not understand our plan (the Acheson-Lilienthal Report) at all. Baruch, who insists on immediate punishment, and the refusal to it have led to almost no discussion on the core issues of the plan. The current situation is entirely different from what we expected. Baruch's proposal was almost entirely accepted without criticism. No real debate took place. A subcommittee was organized to discuss practical implementation, but Oppenheimer expects nothing. (...) Oppenheimer is charming and intelligent. But he is quite a pitiable figure."

*President Truman, facing worsening international situations such as the Soviet Union testing its first nuclear weapon Joe 1 and Mao Zedong's victory in China, overruled all opposition and ordered the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) to develop the hydrogen bomb as soon as possible.

*By April 1947, the U.S. possessed seven nuclear bombs. By the fall of 1949, over 200 more had been produced.

*In the early stages of hydrogen bomb development, Oppenheimer showed little enthusiasm for the project. Instead, he advocated for joint testing and strategic weapon development with the Soviet Union. As a result, he was stripped of his security clearance and barred from accessing classified nuclear information and even faced trial. AEC investigators at the time reported that Oppenheimer's mindset was very complicated and that he could not fulfill his role and responsibilities as a scientific advisor. "It is true he has the persuasiveness to convey his thoughts adequately, but that ability does not align with the aggressive military interests of this country," they assessed. They did not doubt his patriotism but noted his lack of enthusiasm for ongoing security programs and hydrogen bomb development plans, so they never restored his security clearance. Unlike Oppenheimer, who advocated balance, defensive strategies, strategic nuclear weapons, and air defense systems, they pursued an all-out offensive strategy through hydrogen bomb development.

*In the final judgment following the AEC committee's interrogation, Oppenheimer was stripped of all qualifications. The cross-examination was conducted by Roger Robb. He listed various testimonies from people who claimed Oppenheimer might have passed nuclear secrets to the Soviet Union. It is said that Oppenheimer bowed and wrote the word 'idiot' on his palm.

*Newly revealed facts during the hearing included information about Oppenheimer's disciples. During the war, Oppenheimer once said that the political views of Bernard Peters, David Bohm, Giovanni Rossi, and Joseph Weinberg posed a security risk to the Radiation Laboratory. These students were indicted by the Committee on Un-American Activities. Bohm, Rossi, and others were also investigated for Communist activities. This incident was often reported as a disgraceful act committed by Oppenheimer to maintain his position. He was portrayed as someone who would sacrifice even his disciples for himself. In reality, several careers were completely ruined due to his testimony.

*After being stripped of his qualifications, Oppenheimer faced another crisis while preparing for an appeal. Painful memories from Harvard and Cambridge resurfaced. He found it hard to believe that his patriotism and loyalty were put on trial. In the past, he had the opportunity to contribute to the development of weapons of mass destruction using atomic energy, but he ultimately never had the chance to suppress war through peaceful use and communication of nuclear energy and mutual understanding among humanity.

*The pain and wounds caused by Oppenheimer's loss of status became public only in the fall of 1954. On December 26, 1954, during a radio broadcast as part of Columbia University's 200th anniversary celebration, he stated, "Academia and science are in a globally desolate and desperate situation." He said, "Although the humanities and sciences abound, the languages and techniques of each discipline are fragmented, with science on its own, humanities on their own, and all disciplines going their separate ways." "Imagine academia as a village. From a high vantage point, there are many villages, but there are no roads connecting them." In fact, Oppenheimer made continuous efforts to build bridges between various fields.

*In April 1945, at a Los Alamos memorial service commemorating President Franklin Roosevelt, Oppenheimer quoted a passage from the 'Bhagavad Gita': "A person is a creature made of beliefs. Therefore, someone's belief is oneself."

*Hindu philosophy greatly influenced Oppenheimer. Although he did not read the original text during his Harvard years, he showed deep interest in Sanskrit literature. From 1932, he audited classes taught by Professor Arthur Ryder Berkeley, who translated the 'Bhagavad Gita,' and studied its content. In an October 1933 letter to his younger brother, he expressed excitement, calling it "a very simple yet magnificent work."

*Professor Ryder, who introduced the 'Bhagavad Gita' to Oppenheimer, summarized the song as follows: "It is a great epic dealing with the conflict between two royal families. Their discord over the throne is fully resolved only after a war is fought." The epic begins with the battle of the brave and skilled archer Prince Arjuna. Riding a chariot, Arjuna knew well that those he was to fight were his relatives, teachers, and friends. As they drew near, he suddenly gave up fighting. Then, a scene follows where he seeks counsel from Krishna. The 'Bhagavad Gita' gives a clear answer: "In a battle with a clear cause, O warrior, kill even your kin." In the eighteen chapters of dialogue, Krishna explains to Arjuna why he must not abandon the fight. He urges him to fight because he is a soldier. Also, who lives and who dies is not decided by Arjuna but by Krishna himself, and Arjuna should grieve or rejoice according to what fate decides. Most importantly, "devotion to Krishna will save Arjuna's soul." Oppenheimer praised the 'Bhagavad Gita' as the most beautifully written philosophical work on a single event in all languages. He kept several old English copies on his desk within reach and often gave them as gifts to friends. He also avidly read this book during his time at Los Alamos. Even during the Trinity test in August 1945, he was conscious of one passage: "I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds."

*One day in the early 1950s, Einstein told Oppenheimer during a walk, "Once you achieve some reasonable accomplishments, your life will undergo considerable changes thereafter."

*Physicist Isidor Rabi said in a 1967 speech for Oppenheimer: "Before World War II, Oppenheimer's fame and influence did not extend beyond the small field of physics. But during the war, as director of the Los Alamos Laboratory, he attracted much attention. There were other great laboratories and leaders, other physicists, but none received as much attention as he did. Among many scientists, Oppenheimer emerged as the most charismatic figure after Einstein. (...) Naturally, all authority rested on Oppenheimer's shoulders. For example, Ernest Lawrence, Harold Urey, Arthur Compton, Lee DuBridge, James Conant, and others still had strong influence, but not to the extent of Oppenheimer's leadership. The scientific honors he enjoyed were tremendous."

*Oppenheimer called himself a physicist and never left the physics community. However, after 1946, he did not conduct any entirely new research. In 1956, he described himself as "a professional physicist, aged and lifeless." He did not lose interest in the latest research trends in quantum physics and high-energy physics but did not pioneer new fields or immerse himself in the broader theoretical physics community. He was a representative physicist of his era and an outsider in the physics community.

*For Oppenheimer, science was an escape from the shackles of desire. In a letter to his brother in March 1932, he wrote: "As time passes, precious happiness drifts away in an environment that only pursues convenience. Through training, we can attain tranquility. Although the world has given up, transcendent activities such as incarnation or compassion grant precious freedom. Through training, we can see the world clearly amidst the tremendous distortions created by personal desires and better accept the fearful situation the Earth faces. (...) Training, by its nature, overcomes our minds. If truly achieved, it will eventually produce more beautiful results. To be the subject of this, one must accept with gratitude not only study but also duties for human welfare, war, personal suffering, and the basic demands necessary for survival. Only through this process can we experience minimal transcendence and understand what peace is."

*Oppenheimer studied the Vedas (ancient Indian religious, mythological, philosophical, cosmological, and social texts) at Harvard and Berkeley, learning about transcendence, training, and incarnation.

*Oppenheimer used his charismatic qualities to secure large research funds at Berkeley and Caltech. His charisma also played an important role in the successful achievements of the Los Alamos Laboratory. It radiated more in one-to-many relationships than in one-to-one relationships.

*Oppenheimer's daughter committed suicide. He accepted the tragedy calmly and overcame it with indomitable will.

*After Oppenheimer was dismissed following the 1954 trial, fellow physicists and liberal intellectuals began portraying him as a fallen hero like Galileo or Dreyfus.

*Oppenheimer was a person who thought while speaking. His writing style was ambiguous, complex, yet gentle, contrasting with Einstein's concise and economically straightforward style.

*In 1928, Oppenheimer conducted research at the Leiden National Institute, assisting Paul Ehrenfest. Ehrenfest wrote a letter sending Oppenheimer to Wolfgang Pauli in Zurich, stating: "The most urgent task to bring out Oppenheimer's great talent is to correct his character." Ehrenfest hoped Pauli would fulfill this role. In February 1929, Pauli replied to Ehrenfest: "Oppenheimer is adapting well to Zurich. However, much of his scientific ability has not yet manifested. His various ideas from boundless imagination are certainly his strengths. But he has the flaw of being easily satisfied. Rather than posing problems himself and persistently pursuing them, he tends to seek solutions from others' perspectives. Unfortunately, he has the bad habit of considering anything I say as absolute truth and accepting it unconditionally. We want to help with this weakness, but I do not know how to help in the current situation." Later, General Leslie Groves noticed his unique tendency to require authority and obey, appointing him as the head of Los Alamos.

*Murray Kempton analyzed Oppenheimer's behavior during his atomic energy duties in 1954. He assessed that Oppenheimer was a person who desperately needed authority above himself. Silvan S. Schweber, author of 'Einstein and Oppenheimer,' analyzed, "Obedience to authority is deeply related to Oppenheimer's philosophy that 'we are trained through learning, duties to people, nation, war, and personal suffering.'"

*During his Berkeley days, Oppenheimer had top-level students and doctoral researchers such as Melba Phillips, Arnold Nordsieck, Wendell Furry, Willis Lamb, Robert Serber, Philip Morrison, Leonard Schiff, George Volkoff, Joseph Keller, Sichi Kusaka, Hartland Snyder, Julian Schwinger, Sidney Dankoff, Bernard Peters, Edward Gerjuoy, Leslie Foldy, and David Bohm. It was no different at Los Alamos. It was filled with talented individuals from the U.S. and Britain, and the research topics were clear: uranium production and plutonium bomb manufacturing. As the laboratory director, he supported all researchers from Nobel laureates to student researchers, creating an atmosphere where they could recognize their importance. It was the same when working for the government after the war. Members of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) standing committee such as James Conant, Enrico Fermi, Isidor Rabi, and Cyril Smith, and high-ranking government officials like George Marshall, Dean Acheson, Vannevar Bush, David Lilienthal, and William Clayton were all highly capable and worked with mutual respect. Oppenheimer's mission was also clear: to achieve a temporary agreement that could resolve the political and military situation between the Soviet Union and the U.S. If a metaphor in music is for ensemble playing, Oppenheimer played the role of helping each outstanding musician harmonize to perform a beautiful symphony.

*Einstein believed that hierarchy existed even in science. He thought the greatest experiment for a physicist was to prove universal and fundamental laws about the universe. He believed it was possible to scientifically clarify all natural phenomena and even the origin of life. Oppenheimer's view was the opposite. Because countless pieces of knowledge about the world are constantly interconnected and changing, theories that transcend eras exist only at a 'fundamental' level. Their difference was also evident in their views on quantum physics. To the question, "Can quantum physics reveal the most fundamental principle that unites the world?" Einstein consistently answered negatively. In contrast, Oppenheimer supported Niels Bohr's theory. In his 1950 article 'Tribute to Science in the 1900s-1950s' published in Scientific American, he wrote: "Although the world is composed of atoms, it is impossible to explain the entire atomic system based on a single model dealing only with a single substance."

*Oppenheimer believed quantum physics provided deep and new insights to understand the more microscopic world. No matter what new theory emerges about the microscopic world, quantum physics would ultimately reinforce the clear conclusions it has already presented. Like Bohr, he thought various questions in human history help understand different fields, especially biology, psychoanalysis, and various cultural questions. Due to the expansion of 'complementarity,' nature and science became richer, with new elements of diverse and delicate arguments added.

*Oppenheimer valued collectivism. Schweber introduces an anecdote from 1958 with David Lilienthal as a representative example in 'Einstein and Oppenheimer.' During an executive meeting, Oppenheimer explained his long-standing concerns about arms reduction and proposed that as many people as possible gather to discuss it together. After the meeting, Oppenheimer told Lilienthal, "Since we had the opportunity to research and study together, this meeting was special and fruitful. We all had the chance to study with a student's attitude. It is through such opportunities that your genius can blend into the group."

*Einstein did not play a major role in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki but received much criticism. His responses always included a kind of regret along with the threat he felt from Germany. "I never participated in research related to the production of the atomic bomb. If I contributed anything in this field, it was only establishing in 1905 the general physical properties of nature and the correlation with large amounts of energy. Thoughts about military potential had nothing to do with me. Regarding the bomb, I only sent a letter to President Roosevelt in 1939 informing him that such a bomb might be possible and that Germany might also make it. Since there were clear signs that Germany was conducting related projects, I fulfilled my duty. (...) I believed Germany was putting all its effort into this project, so I felt urgency. I have always aimed for pacifism, but at that time, I could not think of any other alternative."

*In November 1954, Einstein met chemist Linus Pauling, who visited Princeton, and said, "Recommending President Roosevelt to make the atomic bomb is a mistake I regret for my entire life. But since Germany might have made the atomic bomb, I did so." He left similar words to physicist Max von Laue just weeks before his death.

*The bomb dropped on Hiroshima had a destructive power equivalent to 10 kilotons of TNT, turning the entire city into ashes. By the end of that year, about 140,000 Hiroshima residents had died, and over five years, the death toll reached 200,000. Three days after the atomic bomb was dropped, another plutonium bomb exploded in Nagasaki. The city was devastated, and about 70,000 people died by the end of 1945.

*Upon hearing the news of the Nagasaki bombing, Einstein said, "An ancient Chinese proverb is correct. None of us can know the consequences of what we do." "The only wisdom is to do nothing. Truly, the real wisdom is to never do anything." The Chinese proverb he referred to was from Taoist philosophy.

*Los Alamos scientists were amazed by the actual results and the extent of destruction caused by the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima, calling it an "unexpectedly powerful explosion." Some were tormented by guilt, and their lives were completely changed. They believed the bomb would only be used in retaliation if Nazi Germany first launched a nuclear attack on the U.S. or Britain?that is, they hoped it would never be used. However, they had no authority to decide whether to use the bomb.

*In early 1946, Secretary of State James Byrnes organized a committee led by Undersecretary of State Dean Acheson. They were instructed to propose to the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) plans for nuclear disarmament and peaceful use. The committee included Groves, Bush, Conant, and John McCloy. The advisory chairman was Lilienthal, then head of the Tennessee Valley Authority, and the scientific advisory chairman was Oppenheimer. Oppenheimer planned the core part of the Acheson-Lilienthal Report released in March 1946. The proposal's gist was to devise a nuclear inspection system to prevent individual governments from recklessly developing nuclear energy and to establish an appropriate safety net.

*In October 1949, the AEC advisory panel chaired by Oppenheimer unanimously recommended the government not proceed with the hydrogen bomb program. The hydrogen bomb was about 1,000 times more powerful than the bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Despite their objections, President Truman ordered the bomb's development. The public and scientific communities were shaken. Some scientists refused to participate, calling it a suicidal act.

References: Silvan S. Schweber, translated by Kim Young-bae, published by Sidaeui Chang, 'Einstein and Oppenheimer' (2013); Kai Bird & Martin Sherwin, translated by Choi Hyung-seop, published by Science Books, 'American Prometheus' (2010); John Lewis Gaddis, translated by Jung Cheol & Kang Kyu-hyung, published by Eco Livre, 'The Cold War History' (2010); Richard Rhodes, translated by Moon Shin-haeng, published by Science Books, 'The Making of the Atomic Bomb 1 & 2' (2003), etc.

This content was produced with the assistance of AI translation services.